Drug Trafficking is a major problem throughout the world. Not only the drugs themselves, but the related crimes, such as corruption of officials and money laundering, can destabilize economic and political systems (Interpol, 2023). Police the world over need to track the routes that drugs take, from their growing or manufacture to their destination. Seizures by law enforcement agencies can be profiled as a tool to combat drug trafficking.
Drug Trafficking
Drug trafficking occurs in many countries. The differences in laws between nation-states cause difficulties in cooperation. To combat the crime, countries have to work together. For some, the amount of drugs that are considered an issue is less than in other nations. The more countries a consignment travels through, the more the laws have to mesh. However, in some cases, the consignment is permitted to travel so the network can be studied (Eurojust, 2023). Between 2016 and 2020, there has been a steady increase in cases of drug trafficking (Eurojust, 2023).
The methods various smugglers use for transport vary as much as the drugs themselves. Some suppliers use ‘drug mules’, people who attempt to carry the drugs into the country for a fee. Other producers use small boats and yachts, shipping containers, light aircraft, or even the postal service (NCA, 2023). Drugs have even been detected hidden in child booster seats (Hirwani, 2022). All of this makes it difficult to trace the routes that shipments take. A combination of law enforcement practices has identified some of the standard routes drugs travel, see image 1 (UN). One of the methods used to locate the origin of the drugs is drug profiling.
Drug Profiling
Drug profiling is a way of identifying differences and similarities between multiple seizures of illicit drugs so that the dealer/user contacts and the point of origin can be established (Future Learn).
Packaging
Drug profiling is not just about chemical analysis. Before a scientist performs any analysis, a physical description is required. This starts with the wrappings. See image 2 (Knipe, 2020). If the covering is plastic, then the possibility of latent fingermarks arises. Sometimes DNA is extractable from fingermarks (Zamir, 2007).
Other types of packaging are more insidious. In Manchester UK, police seized drugs packaged to resemble sweet wrappers. There is no evidence that the drugs were aimed at school children, but the wrappings would have been enticing to children (Vesty, 2021). Once the coverings are described and photographed, it is time to move on to the appearance of the contents.
Appearance
Many drugs look identical on superficial examination. The forensic scientist looks very closely at all the evidence. Magnifying glasses and macroscopes can help in this process.
A forensic team was called to examine two lots of pinkish powder from one seizure. Initially, they looked similar but with closer study, they were different shades of pink and one was coarser-grained than the other. Other drugs are more easily differentiated by appearance. Crack cocaine is a white crystalline substance whereas cocaine is a white powder. Cannabis comes both as a brown resin or a plant (An Garda Síochána, 2023).
When moving from examination to chemical analysis and separation, the researchers find different cutting agents among the drugs (Morley, 2011).
Adulterants versus Contaminants
When considering cutting agents, it is important to understand the difference between adulterants and contaminants. When buying street drugs, the product is unlikely to be pure. Adulterants and diluents bulk out the drugs, providing more profit for the dealer. See image 3 (Di Trana, 2022).
Diluents are pharmaceutically inactive ingredients such as flour, sugar, or talcum powder.
Adulterants, however, are more dangerous. They are active ingredients that do not just bulk out the drug, they can also enhance or imitate the looked-for effects.
The final additive to drugs is contaminants. These are by-products from the manufacturing process or substances introduced by careless procedures, such as failing to clean the equipment (Payer, 2020). This includes bacterial contamination.
Unfortunately, the cutting agents are more likely to increase the dangers for illicit drug users, such as overdose and death (Matta, 2022). Strangely enough, it is these substances that enhance profiling’s ability to combat drug trafficking. They are discovered during the analysis process.
Analysis
The Gold Standard for chemical analysis is GC-MS, which I discussed in a previous article. (https://mozartcultures.com/en/detection-and-analysis-of-drugs/ )
In drug profiling, however, the scientist is not only attempting to identify the drug, they are also looking for the precursors, adulterants, and contaminants as listed above.
If two samples of drugs show contaminants (processes of manufacture) in the same ratio, then it is likely they are from the same network, even if they contain different diluents or adulterants.
However, if they had adulterants in the same ratio but differing contaminants, that suggests that the local dealers have multiple sources of supply (Morley, 2011). In this slow and painstaking way, drugs are traced back along the routes to their countries of origin, by coordination between countries along the way (Eurojust,2023).
Finally
Law enforcement agencies from all nation-states work together to halt the efforts of drug smugglers. By learning the different ratios of contaminants to adulterants, it is possible to trace the routes traffickers take to transport their illicit products. Profiling is a vital tool in the efforts to combat drug trafficking.
References
An Garda Síochána. (2023) What do Drugs look like? Ireland’s Nation Police and Security Services. https://www.garda.ie/en/crime/drugs/what-do-drugs-look-like-.html
Di Trana, A., Berardinelli, D., Montanari, E., Berretta, P., Basile, G., Huestis, M. A., & Busardò, F. P. (2022). Molecular Insights and Clinical Outcomes of Drugs of Abuse Adulteration: New Trends and New Psychoactive Substances. International journal of molecular sciences, 23(23), 14619. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232314619
Eurojust. (2023) Drug Trafficking. European Agency for Criminal Justice Cooperation. https://www.eurojust.europa.eu/crime-types-and-cases/crime-types/drug-trafficking#:~:text=Drug%20trafficking%20is%20an%20especially,law%20enforcement%20and%20judicial%20authorities
Future Learn. Drug Profiling. University of Strathclyde. https://www.futurelearn.com/info/courses/introduction-to-forensic-science/0/steps/10573#:~:text=Drug%20profiling%20aims%20to%20extract,to%20expose%20dealer-user%20networks
Hirwani, P. (2022) Customs Officials find methamphetamines worth $60,000 hidden in Child Booster Seats in California. The Independent. Sept 19. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/crime/meth-hidden-child-booster-seats-california-b2104448.html
Interpol (2023). Drug Trafficking. https://www.interpol.int/en/Crimes/Drug-trafficking
Knipe. V. (2020) Personal Photograph.
Matta, N. (2022). Adulterants and Additives in Substances. American Addiction Centres. Nov 3. https://americanaddictioncenters.org/ecstasy-abuse/adulterants-in-drugs-mdma
Morley, S. (2011) Drug Profiling —Common Source: What does it actually mean to your Case? Keith Borer Consultants. Sept 01 https://www.keithborer.co.uk/news/drug-profiling-common-source-what-does-it-actually-mean-to-your-case/
NCA. (2023) Drug Trafficking. National Crime Agency. https://www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/what-we-do/crime-threats/drug-trafficking
Payer, D.E., Young, M.M., Maloney-Hall, B., Mill, C., Leclerc, P., Buxton, J., the Canadian Community Epidemiology Network on Drug Use, & the National Drug Checking Working Group. (2020). Adulterants, contaminants and co-occurring substances in drugs on the illegal market in Canada: An analysis of data from drug seizures, drug checking and urine toxicology. Ottawa, Ont.: Canadian Centre on Substance Use and Addiction.
- Drug Trafficking. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/drug-trafficking/index.html
Vesty, H. (2021) Police Release ‘Scary’ image of drugs disguised in sweet wrappers ready to be sold on the street. Mancheste Evening News. Mar 10. https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/police-release-scary-image-drugs-20042000
Zamir, A , Cohen, Y & Azoury, M. (2007). DNA Profiling from Heroin Street Dose Packages. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 52. 389 – 392. 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2006.00360.x.
